Cicero as Letter Writer

  

Throughout his life, Cicero has sent many letters to other politicians trying to influence them into making certain political decisions. We know that Cicero is famed for being extremely skilled in the art of rhetoric. Although Cicero also had other means of convincing people besides his letters, he also is a famous letter writer. It has been argued that letter writing could have been an effective political tool at the time in which Cicero lived, but just how effective was it. In this essay, I will be looking at the mechanics of letter writing at the time and how this may have aided Cicero in his endeavours. I would particularly be looking at the different forms of politeness that was used in letter writing at the time. I then also will be looking at a letter that Cicero wrote to Pompey and a letter that Pompey wrote to Cicero as examples of the letters that were written at the time. I will particularly be looking at the different kinds of politeness that were used in these particular letters.

                                                                                                                                               

It would seem letter writing was an important skill for an ancient Roman politician to learn. Letter writing was not only a method to convince other politicians of your standing (and in doing so convincing them to do what you want them to do), but also was a way of building and sustaining political relations. The ancient Romans at the time of Cicero had a code of courtesy that one was expected to apply when writing letters. This was a code of politeness and over-flattery. If one was particularly good at rhetoric one could use this code to influence others to think and do certain things. Because of this letter writing was a potentially powerful political tool at Cicero’s time:

this courteous language played a crucial part in the cultivation and preservation of political friendships in the Late Roman Republic. (John Hall, 2009)

Seeing as Cicero was a master at rhetoric, he also was extremely skilled at letter writing.

                                                                                                                                               

Different forms of politeness were used. Redressive and Affiliative politeness. These different forms of politeness seems to have been adapted for the use of different social situations. When using affiliative politeness, the addressee portrays himself as a friend of the addressed. Affiliative politeness reminds the addressee of how close they are to the sender, to create a special bond between himself and the addressee (John Hall, 2009) For this reason, this kind of politeness would be particularly useful when trying to create or strengthen alliances. Redressive politeness is used to navigate particularly dangerous or difficult social situations. “redressive” politeness, is a term that I use to refer to linguistic strategies that attempt to compensate for the threat to face involvement in certain types of social interaction. (John Hall, 2009) There seem to have been a couple of situations that were particularly difficult when writing letters: “requests, refusals and the giving of advice.” (John Hall, 2009) Because of this:  “Redressive politeness is primarily concerned with the problems involved in intruding on another person’s time and energy.” (John Hall, 2009) Seeing as Cicero wrote quite a lot of letters trying to influence certain political events, he would have written plenty of awkward and difficult letters. Because of this both these forms of politeness must have been very useful tools in Cicero’s rhetorical arsenal. Cicero relied heavily on both these forms of politeness.

                                                                                                                                               

Throughout most of the famous political events that Cicero lived (such as the Roman civil wars for example), Cicero did not have much direct power to change political events. This was true even though Cicero was a senior senator in the Roman civil wars. His influence over political happenings still was severely limited. As for Cicero, although he was a senior senator, he held no magistracy or command that enabled him to direct affairs. He had no authority to convene the Senate, and he was not even the head consular whom the presiding magistrate invited to frame the debate by speaking first. (Peter White, 2012) Although seniority did seem to have some advantages. Because of his seniority, he could make his views heard, although he still had no means of imposing them on others. His seniority ensured that he could always make his views heard, yet he could impose them only by persuading others to share them. He could deliver an address to the People only when a magistrate invited him to do so. (Peter White, 2012) Because he did have direct power over how political events would unfold Cicero had to find other means of manipulating political events. Letter writing was an effective tool in which to impose indirect influence over political events. Because Cicero was such a master of the art of rhetoric he convinced other politicians to do what he wanted them to do.

                                                                                                                                                              

Cicero was wholly unsuccessful in his endeavours. Ultimately none of the things that he wanted to happen came to pass. He never did succeed in restoring the Republic. One might then say that letter writing is not a successful political tool seeing as Cicero’s letters failed to fulfil their ultimate purpose. I do not think that this is the case. Even though Cicero’s letters did succeed in Restoring the Republic, it would seem that they played a major part in the political events of his time. It is as Peter White says: it may seem surprising that Cicero’s letters should have played any part at all in the war effort. (Peter white, 2012) I think letter writing could have been a very useful political tool to the ancient Romans and especially to Cicero. Cicero had little direct power over large political events such as the civil wars. The fact that it made any noteworthy contribution to how history played out is significant. And Cicero did play quite a significant part in the way in which events unfolded themselves:

He operated on roughly the same footing as Antony, Octavian, Lepidus, Plancus, Brutus, Cassius, and the rest. (Peter White, 2012)

If it had not been for his letter writing Cicero would likely not have played as large a part as this.

                                                                                                                                               

One excellent example of a letter in which Cicero tries to influence is the letter he wrote to Pompey shortly after Cicero thwarted Catiline’s conspiracy.

Rome, summer 62 B.C. Like everybody else I was delighted with your official dispatch. It held out the confident expectation of peace which I have always forecast to everyone because I rely on you so completely. I have to tell you that your new friends, who used to be your enemies, were really shattered by what you wrote, and prostrated with disappointment at the collapse of their high hopes. I can only assure you that your private letter to me was also welcome – although it only contained a slender indication of your regard for myself. However, what pleases me most in the world is feeling that I have done the right thing by other people, and if on any occasion I do not receive the same return I am perfectly satisfied that the balance of services rendered should be on my side. Besides, even if my unremitting efforts on your behalf have not altogether succeeded in attaching you to me, I am convinced that our country’s needs will bring us together and make us close associates. All the same, I do want you to know what I missed in your letter. I shall explain to you openly what I have in mind – my character and our friendship being what they are, I cannot do otherwise. I have achieved things for which I had hoped, in view of our relationship and the national interest, to find some word of congratulation in your letter. I expect you left it out in case you should cause someone offence. But I must tell you that the reaction to what I did to save our country has been universally favourable. When you come home you will, I know, realize that what I did was brave, as well as wise; and so I am confident that you will be happy to let me join you as a political ally as well as a friend – you being so much greater than Scipio Aemilianus, and myself not much inferior to Laelius! Cicero, Fam. XIV, 1

In this letter, he asks Pompey to congratulate him on his recent success against Catiline, but this letter has hidden intentions. Cicero executed the conspirators without a trial: this was illegal in Rome’s legal system. If Cicero could therefore get a letter of approval from Pompey, he could claim that Pompey approved of what he did. Cicero particularly manipulates Pompey in this letter by being very selective with the truth. Cicero never in this letter mentions that he has executed the conspirators without a trial. He only mentions that he has missed Pompey’s congratulations in the previous letter that Pompey sent to him. He does not mention exactly what Pompey should congratulate. This is a form of redressive politeness seeing as it is used for the purpose of saving face. Cicero’s assumption that Pompey should know what he should congratulate him on is a very clever way of getting around the fact that he has executed a number of people without trial. If Pompey had written a letter of congratulations to Cicero, he would not necessarily have known precisely what he was congratulating. By not stating what it is that Pompey should congratulate he also neglects to mention that he has executed many people without trial. It also creates an image of friendship between himself and Pompey. By assuming that Pompey knows what he should congratulate he creates the image that Pompey pays attention to Cicero’s affairs and therefore creates the image that they are friends.

                                                                                                                                               

I have just shown an example of Cicero using redresive politeness, but he mostly makes use of affiliative politeness in this particular letter. I say this seeing as he does quite a lot to portraying Pompey as his friend as well as to portray himself in a positive light. If we for example look at the following line:

I am convinced that our country’s needs will bring us together and make us close associates. Cicero, Fam. XIV, 1

Here Cicero not only establishes that he wants to be a close friend to Pompey, but also that Rome’s wellbeing is important to him. He also establishes that Rome’s well-being is important to Pompey. He does so by stating that he and Pompey will become close associates due to their country’s needs, implying that their countries' needs are something they are both interested in. Here Cicero establishes both himself and Pompey as patriots. He creates a sense of duty in Pompey to congratulate Cicero. Not only because of his friendship with Cicero but also because Pompey is a patriot and as a patriot, he must congratulate Cicero for the service he has done to Rome. Further on Cicero says:

But I must tell you that the reaction to what I did to save our country has been universally favourable. Cicero, Fam. XIV, 1

This establishes the idea that what Cicero has done is good for Rome and the republic. He truly does create the image of himself as a patriot who has done a great service to his country. Cicero even gives Pompey an excuse for not congratulating him in his previous letter:

I expect you left it out in case you should cause someone offence. Cicero, Fam. XIV, 1

This is an example of redressive politeness. This is an example of repressive politeness seeing as it is focused on saving face. In this particular example, Cicero is saving face, not only for himself but also for Pompey. By stating that Pompey left it out because he did not want to cause an offence, he is portraying Pompey as someone who has good intentions and therefore he also is saving Pompey’s face. He is letting Pompey know that it is expected of him to congratulate Cicero, but without telling Pompey that he had done anything wrong by not congratulating him, but in an extremely polite and indirect way. By giving Pompey an excuse for not congratulating him he also makes it very hard for Pompey to find an excuse for not congratulating him in the next letter that he sent to Cicero. It would have been quite difficult for Pompey not to congratulate Cicero in the next letter that he sent to him. Especially because Cicero portrayed himself as a friend to Pompey a patriot and because he has already given Pompey an excuse for not congratulating him in his previous letter. Although the ultimate purpose of this particular letter was not successful, (Cicero did end up being exiled because of his unlawful execution of the conspirators) I would still say that it is an extremely powerful method of persuasion.

                                                                                                                                               

Cicero was not the only one writing to other politicians trying to influence them. Other politicians were trying to do exactly the same to him. We can, for example, see this in on of Pompey’s letters to Cicero. In this letter, he urges Cicero to join his side in the civil war between Caesar and himself. This letter is extremely short, but it nevertheless is extremely powerful and it is clear that it was specifically written to win Cicero over:

I was glad to read your letter. For I recognized your courage of old in the national interest. The consuls have joined my army in Apulia. I urge you strongly, in the name of your exceptional and unceasing patriotism, to come to us so that we can plan together how to help and rescue our sorely afflicted country. I propose that you should travel by the Appian Way and proceed quickly to Brundisium. Cicero, Att. VIII, 11c

We can clearly see that Pompey is trying to manipulate Cicero in this letter. He does so by appealing to Cicero’s patriotism. Pompey also does quite a lot to make himself appear as a patriot to Cicero. Pompey starts the letter by saying that he was glad to have read Cicero’s letter. He then adds that he was glad to have read the letter because he recognised the “courage of old in the national interest.” By saying that he was glad to have seen this within Cicero, he also is implying that national interest is something that he finds to be of importance and therefore that this is something that he would uphold. He therefore also portrays himself as a patriot. Pompey mentions that the Councils are with him. By doing this, he is insinuating that the Senate are on his side. This is something that would have appealed to Cicero seeing as Cicero is interested in the preservation of the Roman republic. He then also says that he and Cicero should make a plan together in order to “help” their country. Thus, meaning that what Pompey is doing is good for Rome.

                                                                                                                                               

At the end of the letter Pompey gives Cicero a proposed route to take to reach him. By doing this he almost assumes that Cicero has already accepted to join him. By doing this, he is assuming that Cicero has already decided to join Pompey. Because of this, joining Pompey is portrayed as the only logical decision that Cicero could make: seeing as both he and Pompey are patriots and have Rome’s interests at heart. The representation of himself and Cicero as patriots in this letter is a form of affiliative politeness. It does not necessarily portray them as friends, but it does, however, portray them as two people who have common interests. For this reason, it is meant to create a bond between the two men. By writing a letter that appeals to Cicero’s patriotism Pompey would greatly have increased his chance of winning Cicero over.

                                                                                                                                               

Although Cicero’s letters did not achieve their ultimate goal, I still think that they were quite an effective way in which to manipulate others seeing as it is remarkable that Cicero had such a big influence on the political events of his time considering the amount of political power he had. It is quite likely that Cicero would not have played nearly as big a role in Rome’s history as he did had it not been for his letters. The fact remains that even though letter writing can be an effective political tool it does have its limitations. You cannot change someone’s nature with something as simple as a mere letter no matter how good you may be in the art of rhetoric. All you can do is appeal to that nature by convincing someone that certain actions will be beneficial.

Bibliography

J. Hall, Politeness and Politics in Cicero’s Letters (Oxford 2009)

P. White, Cicero in Letters: Epistolary Relations in the Late Republic (Oxford 2012).

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