The Etruscan Culture

  

This essay will look at the Etruscans. It will specifically focus on the different periods of Etruscan history, that Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino divide into the “Transition from the Prehistoric”, the “Villanovan Period”, the “Orientalizing Period”, “Archaic Period”, “The Classical Period.” in their book “A Companion to the Etruscans.” It will also look at the place of women in Etruscan society, the effect Greek influence had on Etruscan society and the difference between the funerary and the non-funerary context of the Etruscans. Most of the information we have about Etruscan culture is archaeological. As such this essay will look at archaeological evidence to examine each one of these categories.

 

In the “Transition from the Prehistoric” one can see that the quality of the goods found in tombs improved increasingly. This included pottery as well as metal works and ornaments. To demonstrate this, I would look at the evolution of metalwork throughout this period. In the copper age as well as in the early bronze age metalwork was very rare. Metal was not widely available, and it was often reused during this period for this very reason, because of this not much metalwork remains from this period. Although some metal items were usually found outside that were found outside settlements. Although we as limited to the examination of axes seeing as this is the kind of metal object from this period that was well preserved. Although other metal objects also did exist in this period such as sickles, daggers and pins, new metal objects such as swords began to appear towards the end of the bronze age. More metal objects were found in the recent bronze age, meaning that the production of metal objects increased at this time. Not only that, but the metal objects of this time also have a higher tin quantity than previous metal objects. The quality of the weapons improved over time as can be seen through the examination of the axes that were found. Due to more effective molding techniques, the axes became better suited for the work they were used for. The invention of new metals also, of course, would have resulted in an increase in the efficiency of tools. The production of copper and arsenical copper works in central Italy has been dated at 3600–3300 BC and it has been said that the first tin Bronze might have appeared at 2200 BC. (Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino, 2016)

 

In the “Villanovan Period” also called the early Iron Age there was an increase in the processes that took place in the previous period. Not only did the efficiency of metal objects increase during this period, but they also became more elaborately decorated. Larger settlements also began to form during this period. The size of cemeteries also increased. Cremations seem to have been very widespread during this period seeing as most Etruscan settlements cremated their dead. During the early Iron Age, very, few burial items were found in Etruscan tombs. This makes it very difficult to ascertain the status of an individual as well as the gender of the individual if the individual has been cremated (Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino, 2016).

 

In the Orientalising Period, we see more items from foreign manufacturers in tombs. Elite tombs from this period contained luxury items that came from all over the Mediterranean. Oriental decorations were found on items that were produced in foreign parts as well as locally. Greek ceramic was also found: especially in the form of objects that were used in a banquet. It also seems that inhumations became more prominent than cremations during this period. Although in the north of Etruria, cremations remained prominent. More prestigious items were found in toms during this period as well as a more unequal distribution of these items. Burial practices become progress during this period. The items that the dead are buried with become more impressive during this period. We also see that there is increased inequality between goods that are found in different tombs. the gentilicial naming system emerged during this period. This shows us that ancestry was important to the Etruscans (Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino, 2016).

 

During the “Archaic Period” there was increased urbanisation in Etruria. Along with this came a complex hierarchical system. The construction of walls is also seen within this period. The existence of walls established a boundary between the urban and the rural. City based coinage also appeared during this period for example. Agriculture was amplified, and underground water channels were used both for irrigation and for drainage. Road networks were improved. Temples were constructed. On the whole settlements became larger and more sophisticated (Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino, 2016).

 

In the Classical Period we see a decrease I foreign imports in Etruscan tombs. This is likely due to conflicts with Syracusans. Seeing as this conflict would have resulted in some of the trade channels that they had before were restricted from the Etruscans. We can see this decline in foreign imports through the lack of foreign items in Etruscan tombs. There were also other historical events that led to a decline in Etruria’s economy, such as conflict with Rome and conflict with the Samnites. Although Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino states that there is not a sure link between the decline in the economy and these conflicts. However, this only seems to have affected southern Etruria seeing as Northern Etruria Cities thrived during this period (Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino, 2016).

 

“The status of Etruscan women, in the archaic period at least — seventh to fifth century B.C. — was surprisingly high in comparison to that of Greek and Roman women” (Larissa Bonfante Warren,1973). According to Larissa Bonfante Warren literary sources speak of the freedom and power of Etruscan women. Although it would seem that their observations of Etruscan culture are not always necessarily correct seeing as these sources were written by foreigners that did not always have a thorough grasp of Etruscan culture. Larissa Bonfante for example says that Theopompus claimed that Etruscan women exercised naked along with men. Although this does not seem to be the case seeing as Etruscan men did not even exercise naked and exercising naked was a Greek practise and. In Etruscan tomb paintings we see women reclined with men at dinner parties. From paintings we also see that Etruscan women joined men in the watching of sport. Women would not have taken part in any of these things in Greek culture. There was less of a distinction in the dresses of the different genders of the Etruscans than of the Greeks. As from the tomb inscriptions it becomes apparent that many Etruscans received their names from their mothers. Although this does not prove that Etruscan society was a matriarch. Herodotus claims that Libyans received their names from their mothers as well. Some of the male urns that were found were in the shape of a hut. It has been suggested that this indicates the ideology of the male as the head of the household. The reasoning behind this is because so few of these urns were found suggest that such urns were only reserved for individuals of high importance (Larissa Bonfante Warren,1973). It would seem that Etruscan women took part in many activities that were viewed by Greeks as exclusively male activities and because of this Greeks made assumptions about Etruscan women that women that were not necessarily true. It would seem that women in Etruscan society enjoyed privileges that they did not enjoy in Greek society and that the difference between different genders in Etruscan society was smaller than that of Greek society. Although it does not seem as though Etruscan women ever had leadership position, given the ideology of the male as being the head of the household.

 

IT would seem that Funeral rights and the world of the dead played a large part in Etruscan life although the world of the living and the world of the dead remained separated in Etruscan culture. The Etruscan dead were buried outside the city in a necropolis. No adults were buried within the city except for on special occasions. This indicates a clear demarcation between the world of the living and of the dead. The array of items that were found in Etruscan tombs changed over time. At first Etruscans were buried along with items that were gender specific. These items depicted the ideology of that particular gender. We for instance see weapons and armour buried alongside males (thus portraying the warrior ideology) and we see items such as spinning and weaving equipment buried alongside females, but later we see females buried with weapons and males buried with spinning and weaving equipment. The Etruscans were sometimes buried along with items that had had no practical use. They were items that would have been in everyday use such as spinning and weaving equipment or weapons and armaments, but they were made from precious materials such as bone or precious metals. Thus, rendering them useless for everyday use. It seams as though these items rather served a symbolic purpose rather than the idea that the person whom they were buried with would actually use them (Corrina Riva, 2010) The Etruscan tombs also were constructed in the shape of an Etruscan dwelling. These tombs often also contained other things, such as furnishings and fittings, that would have been present in a real Etruscan home. It would seem that the idea that the soul of the person who was buried in the tomb using it as a living space is one that could have existed in Etruscan thought (Massimo Pallottino, 1942). Not only were the Etruscan tombs constructed like houses, but the Etruscan cemeteries were constructed like towns.

The Greek did have some influence over Etruscan culture. For one thing a lot of Greek pottery was found in Etruscan tombs. In fact, most the ancient Greek pottery we have today come from ancient Greece. Much of the pottery contained images that would have been familiar to Etruscan aristocracy, such as dining and horse riding, but pottery within there were also pottery found within Etruscan tombs that contained images from Greek mythology and one must wonder it the Etruscans were familiar with these myths (Nigel Spivey, 2018). Some think that Etruscans could have been familiar with these myths.

Although there is evidence that Greek mythology influenced Etruscan mythology to a certain degree. There is for example the Etruscan daemon called Charun who is depicted as being partially bestial figure with a heavy hammer. It is thought that this character may have been influenced by the Greek mythological figure Charon. The Etruscan goddess Vanth is for instance depicted in a similar way as the Greek goddess Moira. (Massimo Pallottino, 1942) Robin Osborne asks the question: “Did selection of imported pottery occur before or after production? Were Athenian pots bespoke, bearing images requested by Etruscans? Or were they selected from images chosen independently by Athenian painters?” in the article “Why Did Athenian Pots Appeal to the Etruscans?” Although this is a question that is specifically cantered on Athenian pottery it is a question that could be asked of all Greek pottery. This article states that it is posable that a lot of Athenian pottery that was found in Etruria was produced for use in Etruria and that this would suggest that the Etruscans baying Greek pottery is not the Etruscans taking on Greek culture, but rather Greeks who produced them according to Etruscan demand. (Robin Osborn, 2013). We can not be sure who the Greek artists had in mind when they produced these pots and we cannot be entirely sure how big an influence Greek culture had on Etruscans.

 

In conclusion: there is much about the Etruscans that we do not know seeing as there are so little Etruscan literary sources and the literary sources that we do have from other cultures are not always necessarily trustworthy, but we do have archaeological evidence, and this could give us clues as to how the Etruscans may have lived.

References

Bell, S and Carpino,A.A. 2016. Companion to Etruria. United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Osborne, R. 2013. Why Did Athenian Pots Appeal to the Etruscans? World Archaeology, 277-

295

Pallottino, M 1942. The Etruscans. London: Penguin Books.

Riva, C. 2010. The urbanisation of Etruria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Spivey, N. 2018 “Volcanic Landscape with Cratersa”, Greece and Rome, 229-253.

Warren, L.B. 2018 “THE WOMEN OF ETRURIA” Arethusa, 91-101.